International Problems in the Uk Essay Example for Free

International Problems in the Uk Essay This study aimed at investigating the academic writing problems of the Arab postgraduate students of the College of Business at Universiti Utara Malaysia and to provide solutions to these problems. For this purpose, four research questions were posed and the answers to these questions were provided and discussed. The data for the study were collected via (face-to-face) interviews. The informants of this study were postgraduate students from the College of Business at Universiti Utara Malaysia for the academic year 2008-2009. The findings of the study revealed that the students faced problems in relation to vocabulary register, organization of ideas, grammar, spelling, and referencing. Introduction Nowadays, English plays an important role in education and students are expected to communicate effectively in institutions where English is the medium of instruction. Learners face the task of mastering content area in subjects such as mathematics, social studies, science, and business which are taught in the target language (English). In such cases, teaching and learning of English can help the students to deal successfully with their academic demands and to perform successfully in their disciplines and professional contexts (Adams Keene, 2000). WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 1 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info In the academic context, Dudley-Evans St. John (1998) point out that the students are required to produce specific writing genres such as essay, summary, critical review, and research paper. However, focus on the distinguishing regularities of structure of different text types can help learners build a repertoire of the organization and the relevant language forms of different genres. It can also make learners aware of the socio-linguistic role that texts play in particular discourse communities. In postgraduate studies in Malaysia, as pointed out by Baskaran (1983), English plays a vital role in helping to initiate students into the academic community in acquiring not only the language proficiency necessary but the specific genres pertaining to these communities. Like any second language learners, Arab learners face many problems in acquiring English. Many studies (Abbad, 1988; Hisham, 2008; Rabab`ah, 2003; Zughoul and Taminian, 1984) have been conducted in the Arab world to investigate the problems of acquiring English among Arab learners. Zughoul and Taminian (1984: 4) found that â€Å"Jordanian EFL students commit serious lexical errors while communicating in English. † Rabab`ah (2003) emphasized that there were problems of acquiring English among Arab learners because of formal instruction by language teachers who are native speakers of Arabic. Another reason given by Rabab`ah (2003) was the limited opportunities Arab learners have to learn English through natural interaction in English since they only encounter native speakers of English who come to the Arab world as tourists. Hisham (2008) investigated the problems that Arab students of business might have at University WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 2 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info Utara Malaysia. He found that those students face problems in vocabulary register, grammar, and referencing. Abbad (1988: 15) admits the weakness of Yemeni learners of English, and he states that â€Å"in spite of the low proficiency level in English of most applicants (Yemeni learners), they are accepted into the English department. † In most of the Arab universities, high school graduates are still accepted to pursue a program, such as English Studies, in spite of their weaknesses in that language. Arab learners find it difficult to communicate freely in English. Abbad (1988) mentions that their problems are due to the inappropriate methods of language teaching and the learning environment which some judge are unsuitable for learning a foreign language. The students appeared to have many problems when writing in English, like not knowing how to organize their ideas, because it is a new experience for them. For students to succeed in a foreign language generally, and writing skills specifically, they need to surround themselves in a language learning environment. In the case of the Arab world, Arab learners have little opportunities to use the foreign language in their society. As a result, many problems occur when they study at a university where the medium of instruction is a foreign language like English. Literature Review English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is divided into English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP). It aims to prepare students, in a relatively short period of time, to communicate, read, and write better so they can work WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 3 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info appropriately and successfully in certain activities. In order to achieve this goal, ESP activities have to be presented in context because context is the central idea of ESP. The other point that has to be taken into consideration in teaching ESP is to use authentic materials; this will lead the students to acquire what they need to develop for their jobs (Hutchinson Waters 1987). According to Dudley-Evans (2001), the absolute characteristics of ESP are: †¢ †¢ ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learners. ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the specialization it serves. †¢ It is centered not only on the language (grammar, lexis, register), but also on the skills, discourses and genres appropriate to those activities. English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) EOP can be grouped into business English, professional English (e. g. English for doctors, lawyers) and vocational English (e. g. English for tourism, aviation, and nursing). Several studies (Flanegin and Rudd, 2000; Goffman, 1979; Pakir, 1999, Puvenesvary, 2003) have been conducted on the importance of English in the occupational fields. Flanegin and Rudd (2000) discuss the need and importance of English skills in all professions. In addition, they emphasize on the importance of communication skills in the business and management fields by suggesting some solutions to enable students to be good communicators in business majors. Goffman (1979) indicates that business negotiations are carried out and letters are usually written in English. This sometimes discomforts those whose first language is not English. WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 4 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info The use of English is even more widespread because of the business-environment revolution. In fact, Pakir (1999) points out that the spread of English is most likely to continue because of the rapid spread of telecommunication, mass communication, business, and internet links. Thousands of international non-native to non-native communication and deals are undertaken daily in a huge number of settings: trade, diplomacy, tourism, journalism, science and technology, politics etc. As a result, there is a need to ensure there are competent writers and speakers of English. Puvenesvary (2003) reveals the importance of being a competent writer of English in the banking sector in Malaysia and the consequences of poorly-written business letters to clients. Methodologies for Teaching Writing for Academic Purposes Prior to discussing the theories related to writing for academic purposes, a few studies will be highlighted in relation to writing problems (Arndt, 1987; Badger and White, 2000; Davies, 1988; Hyland, 2003; Jordan, 1997; Kambal, 1980; Myles, 2002; Paltridge, 2001; Silva, 1990; Smith, 1982; Swale, 1990; Tribble, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978; and Zughoul and Husain, 1985). Kambal (1980) analyzed errors in three types of free composition written by first year Sudanese university students. The study took into consideration the major syntactic errors made by these students in the verb phrase and the noun phrase. Also, Kambal (1980) reported that the three main types of errors made in the verb phrase are verb formation, tense, and subject-verb agreement. He discussed errors in tense within five categories: tense sequence, tense substitution, tense marker, deletion, and confusion of perfect tenses. WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 5 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info The findings of this study reveal that the third-person singular marker was used redundantly, and they also revealed the use of the incorrect form of verb to be. Zughoul and Husain (1985) point out that the lack of lexical variety, subordination, and their heavy reliance on redundancy that does not add any new information to the text are the main problems learners have in writing skills. As a result, L2 practitioners are still in search of a coherent, comprehensive theory of the teaching of writing. The major writing theories proposed in the literature are product, process, and genre. Product Approach According to Silva (1990), the product theory of writing highlights form and syntax and it emphasizes rhetorical drills. The product theory focuses on the written product rather than on how the learner should approach the process of writing. In this theory, writing concerns the knowledge about the structure of language, and writing development is the result of the imitation of input (Badger and White, 2000). In addition, Arndt (1987) argues that the importance of imitation and a model in this theory are not only for imitation but also for exploration of analysis. Similarly Myles (2002) confirms that if the students are not exposed to written model texts, their errors in writing are more likely to subsist. In fact, Jordan (1997) indicates that the students are required to focus on a model, form, and duplication. In other words, the students study model texts and attempt various exercises that enable them to draw attention to relevant features of a text, and then replicate them in their own writing. WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 6 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info Process Approach Another theory which was proposed in order to teach writing is the process theory. Hyland (2003) indicates that the process theory focuses on how a text is written instead of the final outcome. He adds, the process theory has a major influence on understanding the nature of writing and the way writing is taught. Therefore, the process theory emphasizes on the importance of certain procedures such as pre-writing, drafting, evaluating, and revising. He pointed out that the process theory would involve introducing techniques that help the students identify and engage a topic; students are required to show multiple drafts of a work. After discussion and feedback from evaluators, the students would revise the drafts. Rewriting, revision, and editing are essential parts to writing in this theory. In a similar vein, Jordan (1997) states that process writing enables the students to make clearer decisions about the direction of their writing by certain procedures such as discussion, tasks, drafting, feedback, and informed choices. The advantage in adopting the process theory is in updating the importance of the cyclical and recursive nature of writing that is employed by native writers where ‘ordinarily pre-writing, writing, and rewriting frequently seem to be going on simultaneously’ (Smith, 1982: 104). Tribble (1996) explains the process-based approach in teaching academic writing. He says that the students first brainstorm in small groups the topic to be discussed in writing; this helps them to generate ideas before starting to write. This is followed by gathering an outline of the essay and individually writing its first draft. Students revise their first drafts WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 7 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010. http://www. esp-world.info and give them to other students for peer-reviewing and commenting on. The final stage is editing the essay by the writer himself/herself to eliminate all language errors. Thus, this approach focuses on process rather than product. Genre Approach The genre theory in writing emphasizes on the social context in which writing is produced (Badger and White, 2000). Swales (1990) explains that the genre theory is a class of communicative events and that the members of the communicative events share some set of communicative purposes which are identified by the expert members. In the academic context, the experts will be the lecturers who are teaching the various subjects. As claimed by Davies (1988), students, teachers, and subject tutors are all involved in the written language for a selected field of study and the forms of expression permitted within the field. Davies (1988: 131) suggests that the students, in aiming to attain academic success ‘somehow discover the criteria by which the different genres they produce are assessed. ’ He seems to suggest that the criteria are not made explicit to students. Swales (1990) emphasizes the genre-based approach in teaching academic writing. He focuses on analyzing communicative purposes of the text read by learners and the means used by the writers of these texts to reach such purposes. In this approach, the students learn to write their own texts trying to achieve similar communicative purposes by way of choosing the most suitable and expressive language means for that. WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh. 8 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info Flowerdew (2002) views the genre approach as a dynamic approach which varies across time, across disciplines, and across instructors in the disciplines. Thus, the aim of the genre approach in writing is to help students master the conventions of a particular form of genre that is relevant to their specific situation. This approach requires collaboration with instructors from the disciplines, which may not always be possible (Flowerdew, 2002). It is important for the teachers to have cooperation with the students, with the teacher taking an authoritative role to support learners as they move towards their potential level of performance. Similarly, Paltridge (2001) proposes a framework that involves exploring the texts and contexts of students-target situation, enabling reflection on writing practices, exploiting texts from various types of genre and creating mixed genre portfolios. The Objectives of the Study The main objectives of the current study are: To investigate the types of writing carried out by Arab postgraduate students in the business programs at the College of Business at UUM. To investigate the writing problems that Arab postgraduate students face in their business programs at UUM. To find out the causes of the writing problems among Arab postgraduate students of business programs at UUM. To suggest some solutions to solve the writing problems among Arab postgraduate students in the business programs at UUM WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 9. ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info Research Questions This study aims to answer the following questions: 1. What are the types of writing carried out by Arab postgraduate students in the business programs at UUM? 2. What are the problems faced by the Arab postgraduate students of the business programs at UUM in relation to writing skills? 3. What are the causes of the writing problems among the Arab postgraduate students of the business programs at UUM? 4. How to overcome the writing problems faced by Arab postgraduate students of the business programs at UUM? Subjects The informants for this study were 10 Arab postgraduate students in the business programs of COB who are doing their master’s degree by coursework at Universiti Utara Malaysia. The informants have sat for the UUM English Language Placement Test and only three have passed this test. The informants are 5 Jordanians, 2 Iraqis, 2 Libyans, and 1 Yemeni. The age of the informants range from 25 to 40 (see table 3. 1). The original names of the students have been replaced with fictitious names in line with research ethics in keeping the identity of the informants confidential. Research Instrument This is a qualitative study and the researcher used semi-structured interviews to collect data. Gray (2004) indicates that the reasons for choosing qualitative methods for collecting data are: the need to attain highly personalized data, there are opportunities for WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 10 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info probing, a good return rate, and helps the respondents if they have difficulties with written language. Research Design This study is a qualitative study and it utilized semi-structured interviews in a face-toface interaction to explore the students’ beliefs and thoughts about certain topics, this is in line with Lynch’s (1996) view that, the use of semi-structured interviews enhances the understanding of the data and makes the data collection more systematic as compared to the informal conversational approach. Findings and Discussion The findings reported in the next section are based on the four questions posed in the students’ interviews. Writing Types in the Business Programs. It was found that the business students interviewed were required to write several types of academic texts: project papers, article reviews, summaries, reports, article critiques, proposals, comparative analyses, book reviews, essays, and case studies (see table 1). Table 1: Writing tasks in the business programs Interview Q1: what type of writing do S1 you carry out in your program? Projects 1 Total S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 (n=10) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 11. ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info Article Reviews Summaries 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 3 Reports 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 Article critiques 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 Proposals 1 1 Comparative Analysis Book Reviews Essays Exams for 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 Case Studies 1 1 1 1 4 S=student As revealed by the study, students of the business programs are required to produce various genres of academic writing such as projects, article reviews, summaries, reports, article critiques, proposals, comparative analyses, book reviews, essays, and case studies. This is because these’ tasks require students to employ their critical thinking skills, read widely, and apply what they have learnt in their courses. This list of tasks provided partially concurs with the findings of Barbara et al. (1996) who pointed out that reports, WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 12 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info proposals, and projects are the most frequently written business tasks performed by business students. The identified tasks can provide English language instructors insights into selecting and implementing tasks for the English for Business courses. Teachers and curriculum developers can create business English courses based on the results of the needs analysis carried out in the study. Thus, teachers and curriculum developers can give special attention to tasks like projects and reports in the language courses, so that students can be well versed in these tasks. This is in line with the view of St. John (1996) and Chew (2005) who claimed that frequent target tasks can offer a tentative foundation for choosing and implementing tasks for the targeted Business English Communication course. Problems with the Writing Tasks It was found that while carrying out their writing tasks, the business students face problems in vocabulary, grammar, organization of ideas, spelling, and referencing (see table 2). Table 2: Problems with writing tasks in the business programs Interview Q. 2: What are the problems you face in carrying out the writing Total tasks? S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 (n=10) Vocabulary Problems (VP) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10. Register (VR) General (VG) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 7 13 WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info Capacity (VC) Paraphrasing (P) Expressing Ideas (EI) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 8 Grammatical Problems (GP) Prepositions (GPP) Articles (GPA) Tenses (GPT) Word order Organization of ideas 1 1 1 3 Spelling Referencing APA Style (RS) Ignorant (RI) 1 1 1 1. As shown in this study, the postgraduate students of the COB programs at UUM have problems in English academic writing. The major problem that the students mentioned is vocabulary. This is because a reasonable vocabulary size is needed for students to function effectively in their programs. This concurs with Coxhead Nation (2001) who stated that approximately 2,000 words are seen in most uses of the English language. The standard list of these words is the General Service List (GSL) of English Words. The GSL is divided into two parts, the first one is GS1 which contains 1,000 words and the second part is GS2 which also contains 1,000 words. GS1 covers about 77% of academic texts and GS2 25%. The first category contains words that frequently appear in academic texts regardless of subject areas, but they are not common in non-academic materials. As WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 14 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info a result, learners have to learn the words in the GS2 so that they would have less difficulty in pursuing their postgraduate studies. In addition, Rabab`ah (2003) pointed out that the students often lack the necessary vocabulary when they are engaged in authentic communicative situations such as writing and speaking. As a result, the students will be unable to express their ideas freely and accurately because of their limited vocabulary. These difficulties can be solved by offering more discipline-specific reading courses in order to improve the students’ vocabulary size and depth to help them in their academic writing. Also, the students become aware of what to expect in their academic disciplines. This is in line with Kasper’s (2000) view that by providing materials that concentrate on content, the students can be aware of the concepts, audience, and the purpose of their academic disciplines. Moreover, the findings of the current study revealed that the students face difficulties in grammar. Grammar is extremely important in conveying accurate messages. Key grammatical forms include tenses, voices, modals, articles, nominalization, and logical connectors (Dudley-Evans St. John, 1998). Therefore, it is advisable to restrict these forms and create materials which enable the students to progress in their academic writing. This coincides with Hutchinson Waters (1987), who emphasized on identifying the grammatical forms and produced materials that took these forms as their syllabus. Allen Widdowson (1974) stated that the students’ needs could be only met by WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 15 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info a course that develops the knowledge of how sentences are combined together to make meanings. Another problem, which has been mentioned, was the problem of referencing. Writing references according to certain conventions (APA, IEEE, etc) helps the students to be scholarly writers and trains them in academic integrity. Using certain computer programs such as the End-Note program could help the students to achieve that purpose. As such, COB should conduct training sessions for students to use that kind of program which is available in the UUM library. Causes of Writing Problems It was found that the students attributed their problems in English to their weak foundation, environment, and methods of teaching English in their countries. Weak foundation is related to the status of English, the students’ motivation to learn English, and the teachers’ lack of interest. Environmental reasons include the use of the mother tongue, few opportunities to practice English, and isolated culture. On the other hand, methods of teaching English included the medium of instruction, using Arabic in English classes, writing done in Arabic, teachers’ low proficiency in English, and lack of writing practice in educational institutions (see Table 3). WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh. 16 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info Table 3: Causes of problems in writing tasks in the business programs Interview Q3: Why do you think you have S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 Total these problems in writing? (n=10) 1 1 1 1 Weak Foundation (WF) 1 1 1 1 8 Status of English Motivation Teachers’ Lack of interest Environment 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 8 Mother tongue Few opportunities to practice English Isolated culture Methods of teaching English 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 2 1 7 Medium of instruction Writing done in Arabic Teachers’ low proficiency 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 1 Using Arabic in English classes Lack of practice writing in educational institutions 1 1 1 1 17 4 WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info Suggestions to overcome Academic Writing Problems Some suggestions were provided by the informants to improve their writing skills. Most of them emphasized the role of COB, others emphasized the learners’ roles, and some concentrated on the teachers’ roles, and the writing development process (see table 4. 4). Table 4. 4: Suggestions from the informants to overcome academic writing problems Interview Q4: How do you think you can improve your Academic Writing skills? Learner Autonomy (LA) S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 Total (n=10) 5 1 1 1 1 1 Reading Extensively Extra Classes Teachers’ Role (TR) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 5 Speak simple English Use multiple techniques Correct students’ errors Increase the number of writing tasks College Role (CR). 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 Discipline specific materials Discipline specific English test 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh 18 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info The students pointed out that teachers play an important role in improving their academic writing skills. They suggested that teachers ought to correct the students’ grammatical errors. This coincides with Gocsik (1997) who argued that dealing with the students’ grammatical errors, as they arise in students’ writing is helpful. By doing so, it helps to build students’ awareness of the different types of grammatical errors they are making and encourage them to check their errors by using grammar handbooks. Moreover, the students proposed that teachers should employ multiple teaching techniques in order to improve students’ academic writing. Using some fun activities like games and scrambled sentences would motivate the students’ in learning English. This concurs with Ober (1992) who emphasized on including micro-writing activities that focus on the students’ problems in writing and using activities that are simple and related to the students’ academic disciplines. The students also proposed that lecturers should increase the number of writing tasks. They believe that by doing so, they would strengthen their abilities in academic writing. In this way the students will be required to write some of the academic writing tasks, if these tasks were attached with the lectures’ feedback. The students will be aware of their errors and will try to improve their academic writing after knowing their weak points. This is in line with Russell (1991) who suggested including more writing in disciplinespecific courses because each discipline has its own terminologies of language use and style that can best be taught to students in the specific contexts of courses in the disciplines. WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES: PROBLEMS FACED BY ARAB POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, UUM Fadi Maher Saleh Al-Khasawneh. 19 ESP World, Issue 2 (28), Volume 9, 2010, http://www. esp-world. info The students were aware that by providing discipline- specific English materials, they can develop their writing abilities. So, it is advisable for the college to initiate disciplinespecific English classes where materials contain discipline specific register. It is recommended that the students take intensive English courses which are related to their academic disciplines. This is to help familiarize students with the writing demands of their disciplines. This is in line with Jordan (1997) who indicated that the students are required to focus on their academic genres and duplication. In other words, the students study genre texts and attempt various exercises that enable them to draw attention to relevant features of a text, and then replicate them in their own writing. Conclusion For the purpose of exploring the problems that Arab postgraduate students at COB might face, an investigation was carried out on the writing tasks that are carried out and the causes of these problems, and suggestions to overcome these problems were provided. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect the data. The findings of the current study may help the curriculum developers to improve the current curriculum of COB and design Business English courses that could meet learners’ needs and wants. This coincides with Dudley-Evans (2001) who views ESP as a means to meet the specific needs of the learners. The ESP practitioners can utilize the findings of the study to design ESP courses which deals with the academic writing process.

Odysseus in The Hero and the Goddess and Calypso and Circe :: Goddess Calypso

Odysseus in The Hero and the Goddess and Calypso and Circe    Reflections on the experience of Odysseus as related to Jean Houston's The Hero and the Goddess: The Odyssey as Mystery and Initiation and Alicia LeVan's Calypso and Circe  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the lush, luxuriant island of Ogygia, Odysseus spends seven years of his ten year journey home with the beautiful seductive nymph Calypso, who virtually possesses him and compels him to live a sensual but vegetative existence.   For ten years, surrounded by men, he lived out the male heroic ideal of warrior, then spent several years further testing himself against otherworldly obstacles. In the process, he lost all of his companions, and has nothing left but the little that remains of himself. Here on Calypso's isle, he lives in paradise:    "Thick, luxuriant woods grew round the cave, alders, and black poplars, pungent cypress too, and there, birds roosted, folding their long wings, owls and hawks and the spread beaked ravens of the sea, black skimmers who make their living off the waves. And round the mouth of the cavern trailed a vine laden with clusters, bursting with ripe grapes. Four springs in a row, bubling clear and cold, running side-by-side, took channels left and right. Soft meadows spreading round were starred with violets, lush with beds of parsley. Why, even a deathless god who came upon that place would gaze in wonder, heart entranced with pleasure. Homer, The Odyssey, V:71-82, Fagles translation       Odysseus is now embraced by Mother Earth, in all her verdant fertility, and also living deep within caverns that are only reminiscent of the womb. For seven years, Calypso protects him from Poseidon's wrath. As the devoted and devouring mother, AND the seductive and engulfing mistress/lover, she is both what men most desire, and most fear.    Alicia LeVan wrote: Perhaps the 'necessity' he has for unity with the feminine, coupled with his yearning for home, (an embodiment of the feminine principle representing relationship, community, cooperation, and non-aggression) represents a need for integration of the feminine principle within his psyche after years of functioning in war, with the constant testosterone of destroying, killing, raping and surviving in the most   inhumane, strife torn, blood drenched, barren plains of Troy. After ten years of functioning as a killer and destroyer,he must heal his numbness and desensitivity by connecting with his feelings.

Ambedkar Open University (BAOU) Essay

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University (BAOU), Ahmedabad was established in 1994 by the Gujarat State Legislature. It is the seventh Open University in the country in terms of their establishment. The University offers 72 programs with an enrolment of more than 1, 00,000 learners. The University has established regional centre on the campus of South Gujarat University, Rajkot and has initiated the process of another establishing regional centre on the campus of North Gujarat University, Patan. It has jurisdiction over the whole state of Gujarat. The main objectives of the university are to advance and disseminate learning and knowledge by a diversity of means, including use of any communication technology and to provide opportunities for higher education to a large segment of the population. The university encourages the Open University and distance education system in the educational pattern of the State. The university is open to all persons irrespective of classes, castes, creed or religion. Education is an important situation all over the world, and is maybe one of the most forgotten topics in the underdeveloped countries. This is the main reason why they don’t contribute to the progress of their own countries. Education is a human right, and as a fundamental right it is the responsibility of governments to provide it. The most important thing is that education influences human development, economic growth and the fundamental requirement for democracy. It is important in a country to invest a big part of the profits in education, because in many countries, governments prefer to invest in weapons without thinking that they should give another direction to the resources from the military where war and win are the most important thing. The government is blind, and they want to see first in the outside than in the inside, when there are more important things to fulfill like basic needs including food, clothing and shelter. Another important reason why it is necessary to invest in education is because children are being prepared to be poor laborers, just as the people years ago. Instead of preparing them for the future, they have been sent to the past with obsolete laws. There is a big necessity for programs that can teach the responsible use of resources, because without the right knowledge these people without education could be wasting a lot of resources and at the same time could be contributing to an unsustainable development. When speaking of development, the role of women is important in these processes, because in the countries  with the highest levels of human development it is declared that they offer equal opportunities and gender equity in their societies. It means that women can reach high positions, and they can do many of the things that were restricted to them a few years ago. When people see†¦

Organisational Behaviour In Life Experiences Of Teams - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3280 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Analytical essay Tags: Life Experience Essay Did you like this example? The assignment brings out the discussion over the organisational behaviour in life experience of team work in organisation or in classroom activities. Organisational behaviour in a team work plays a vital role and it is the topic has been discussed for a very long time and now nearly everyone knows about its concepts. Simply the organisations wont perform but the one person or many people. When it comes to organisations there should be a team work and perform individuals cant perform whatever they want in an organization they have to form a team and perform individually as well as teams. So when forming a team, organizational behaviour influences toward its success. Organizational Behaviours is the key aspect to maintain and enhance interaction levels amongst people in the organizations. Other attributes like leadership, motivation, decision making, openness to discuss problems, challenge-initiative is all in the base concept of Organizational behaviour to h elp the business achieve its strategic and in some business objectives. The proper definition of organizational behaviour with its understanding and management has resulted in development of few key offshoots to the concept of Organizational behaviours In my view a personality behaviour means how can we describe a person, how this person differences from the others behaviour, how we can measure the characteristics and differences. Psychometrics is also the most important related to the assessment and measurement of the personality, aptitude, intelligence. It is like the unique character of the individual and measure and understands the differences between the individuals. I think the term itself indicates the properties of behaviour which are both enduring and set the individual apart from others. These properties concern the individuals typical ways of coping with life. I am going to explain a few words about the group because it will explain the importance of individual in t he group. The group may spend a lot of time on the each stage, but some groups never reaching the final stages because the personality and levels of dominance of each member may play a large part in the failure or success of the group and its ability to progress through the different stages, the time goes by changes occur, such as new members joining the group or old members leaving the group may re-enter the cycle and begin the development of the process all over again. In this assignment i am going to use the Leadership theory and Motivation Maslows theory. These theories are best suitable for my opinions or views that are raised in my experience and i like those theories a lot so the two theories are chosen. Let me start with those theories Leadership theory A simple definition of leadership is that leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal. Leadership is one of the most hotly debated topics in management studies, soc ial psychology and organisational psychology (Pfeiffer 1993). Despite the depth and breadth of debate concerning leadership effectiveness, it remains an elusive construct. As a result, researchers and practitioners have not reached a consensus on a true and concise definition that represents an accurate depiction of effective leadership in all situations and possibilities. The leadership is one of the effective concepts and well defined as: Treat people with politeness, respect and dignity and in doing so create a strong role model for others to follow. Building a reputation of fairness gives you a buffer against the times when the policy is wrong or you behave badly Gratton (2000:206) According to Nathan F. Iannone, leadership can be defined as the art of influencing, directing, guiding, and controlling others in such a way as to obtain their willing obedience, confidence, respect and loyal cooperation in accomplishment of an objective. Leadership is about the future an d about how do I tap into the group orientation (into what everybody shares). According to Jago (1982) the quality and the qualified, good leaders are not born instead they are made with the influenza ion of the training and the self-assessment, developing skills by improvising others. The natural people ability is also evaluated as a measure of walk their talk. The fascination of the leadership is much higher in terms of the charismatic leader. The leadership based on this charismatic model is really being focused towards the vision and also the ability and the talents are naturally born and also termed as gift. The natural leader adapts the tapping of their inner resources and also natural leaders are more often generalist (Stonefield, 1992:3). The leadership theory based on this contingency model states that there is no particular model of leadership which suits as appropriate in all times of situation. The variables are the basic elements and the preliminary components which determine the success rather than the leadership style which we intend to follow or insist. The leadership has a quality in order to follow the vital roles and also in order to perform the action depending and assessing the situation through various means (Cherry, 2010). The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of personality. The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed broad dispositions. Consider how you would describe the personality of a close friend. Chances are that you would list a number of traits, such as outgoing, kind and even-tempered. A trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways. Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic or humanistic theories, the trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals. The combination and interaction of various traits forms a personality that is u nique to each individual. Trait theory is focused on identifying and measuring these individual personality characteristics. According to Offer Mann, Hanges and Day (2001) much of the discourse on the internal characteristics of leadership over recent years has focused on values and ethics. They argue that disillusionment and a lack of confidence in political leadership have been generated by the particular values that political leaders use to motivate their actions. As a result, Offermann, Hanges and Day (2001) claim that the world is more aware of the importance that values play in leadership effectiveness and success. In addition, it has been shown that particular types of leaders attract different followers depending on their value types (Ehrhart Klein 2001). McShane (2001) argues that in order to motivate, influence, be liked and respected, a leaders values need to align themselves with those of their employees and to reflect integrity, honesty, compassion and assertiveness . The contingency leadership is one of the effective leadership techniques and also has an ability to act as a vital tool in establishing the focus on variables in an environment in order to determine the situations which really opt for our behaviour in any kind of situation. The leadership theory based on this contingency model states that there is no particular model of leadership which suits as appropriate in all times of situation. The variables are the basic elements and the preliminary components which determine the success rather than the leadership style which we intend to follow or insist. The leadership has a quality in order to follow the vital roles and also in order to perform the action depending and assessing the situation through various means (Cherry, 2010). My definition of Leadership is being able to: inspire others, motivate, set a vision, communicate, respect others, and lead by example. A leader must have an honest understanding of who they are, what they know, and what they are capable of. To be successful person you have to convince your followers, not yourself or your superiors. In my opinion this can build confidence in your followers in their faith in you to be able to lead. Followers Different person require different styles of leadership. For example, a company I was working requires more supervision than an experienced employee. A person who lacks motivation requires a different approach than anyone with a high degree of motivation. You must know your people! The fundamental starting point is having a good understanding of human nature, such as needs, emotions, and motivation. You must come to know your employees be, know, and do attributes. Communication Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to another person; it involves a sender transmitting an idea, information, or feeling to a receive. What and how you communicate either builds or harms the relationship between you a nd your employees. Situation Situations are different from all time. Leader is an individual who can use different leadership styles based on the situations .decide the best course of action and the leadership style needed for each situation. For example, you may need to confront an employee for inappropriate behaviour, but if the confrontation is too late or too early, too harsh or too weak, then the results may prove ineffective. Also note that the situation normally has a greater effect on a leaders action than his or her traits. This is because while traits may have an impressive stability over a period of time, they have little consistency across situations (Mischel, 1968). This is why a number of leadership scholars think the Process Theory of Leadership is a more accurate than the Trait Theory of Leadership. Every organisation is subdivided into two different categories such as formal and informal. The organisation when seen as external spectator it appears to be formal with its will defined mission statement, policies and procedure and organisation structure charts, but this is just the tip of the great iceberg floating underneath in the form of informal organisation which a manger has to face. This informal organisation includes informal leaders which have no formal authority given by organisation but they have their influence on many employees, to maintain good relation with such informal leaders as sometimes they can help in getting things done. Internally organisation is subdivided into many groups based on their nature of job, their ethnicity, their culture, their language having their own norms and sentiments managers need to identify such groups and make consistent effort to maintain peace in groups by serving the role of mediator, for smooth running of organisation. Organisation consist of another route of power which can be said as counter organisation, that can be seen in the form of labour unions which are formed to keep check on organisation and make sure that profit hungry organisation dont exploit them. Such counter organisations are needed to be handled with great care. It can be said informal organisations are formed by the people of organisation to satisfaction of their cultural needs and a sense of personal identity and personal belonging. It also provides means to highlight deficiencies in the formal organisation such as excess time taken to complete a task. MASLOW THOERY OF MOTIVATION Motivation is a fundamental driving force behind people behaviour and performance. When the research was done to explain different aspects of motivation from an organisational behavioural perspective many theories or models used to describe the topic of motivation basically it is described as the extent to which persistent effort is directed towards a goal. It is very important to know about different types of motivation theories and their implementation in a group or organisation. These motivation theories spec ify the kinds of needs people has and condition in which they would want to exemplify these needs. Motivation can be internal or external. Example of external motivation is Deadlines. The fear of losing a contract or of not finishing a job on time you started is an example of internal motivation. Both internal and external motivation can be equally powerful. Why i am using this Maslows theory to reflect on my behaviour in group situations. This theory comes under content theories of motivation. There is significant relationship between behaviour and motivation particularly between group and individuals. Motivations of group have a serious impact on individual behaviour likewise the motivation of an individual can have serious impact on group. Abraham Maslow theory was proposed by Dr. Abraham Maslow in 1943, this theory is general overview of human motivation. His theory strikes a distinctive sense of balance between biological and social needs that integrates many motivational concepts. According to Maslow individual needs are set in a hierarchy, and everyone must satisfy their basic needs before they can satisfy their higher needs. The hierarchy is many times portrayed, as a pyramid beginning with physiological needs at the bottom and self-actualization at the top of this pyramid. The needs at the lower level are the most basic. These basic needs must be satisfy well before an individual can become concern with the higher needs like physiological needs, safety needs, security needs, social needs, law and affection, esteem needs. These needs must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He called these needs deficiency needs. As long as we are motivated to satisfy these craving, people are moving toward growth, self-actualization, satisfying needs is healthy, which preventing gratification makes us sick or act evilly. Gareth Morgan suggests that employees are people with complex needs that must be satisfied if they are to lead perform effecti vely in a work place. Employees perform best when they are motivated by task, which will earn them some reward that satisfies their personal needs. Abraham Maslows theory of motivation most widely famous as hierarchy of needs states that human needs when arranged in form of hierarchy, ascending from lowest to the highest, as soon as need at lower level gets completed, the need at next level servers to be a motivator. Maslow divided human needs into five main categories such as physiological which include basic needs for sustaining life like food, water, shelter and sleep. According to Abraham Maslow there are five different levels in hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing Needs Self-actualizing Needs is the highest level of Maslows hierarchy of need. People are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others and interested fulfilling their potential. Esteem Needs Esteem needs include the things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition and accomplishment. Social Needs Social needs include belonging, love and affection. Maslow considered these needs to be less basic than physiological and security needs. Relationships such as friendships, love, romantic attachments and families help fulfil this need for companionship and acceptance, as does involvement in social, community or religious groups. Security Needs Security needs include safety and security. Security needs are important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs. Examples of security needs include a desire for steady employment, health insurance, safe neighbourhoods and shelter from the environment. Physiological Needs A physiological need is low needs. These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the need for water, air, food and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become second ary until these physiological needs are met. Maslow was correct when he said that one need has to be fulfilled before we can move to the next one. Without sufficient amount sleep I wouldnt be able to think of nothing but sleep. Also if I am hungry food will be the only thing on my mind. But because each day I satisfy these basic needs I am able to think about other things because these needs are no longer controlling my thoughts. Next priority is given to security which includes freedom from physical danger and other fears like losing job, property, food, or shelter. Since people are social animals they need to belong, to be accepted by others, hence acceptance third in the list of needs. Once people satisfy their need to belong esteem needs emerge in the form of satisfactions as power, prestige, status and self-esteem and at last when all the other needs are satisfied need for self-actualization which is the desire to maximize ones potential and achieve something. Applying th is theory many organisations where suggested to motivate their employees by monetary gains or assuring security of their job. , Koontz, H, Weihrich (2008), Morgan (2006). There was a research conducted by Douglas T Hall and Khalil Nongame which studied needs of hierarchy involving a group of managers over a time span of five years. They found that there was no strong evidence of hierarchy, as managers get promoted in organisation their physiological needs tend to decrease, while on other hand needs for self-actualization tend to increase H, Koontz , H, Weihrich(2008). Upcoming flaws of Maslows theory the process theory of motivation stated, with the study of ones decision making process and determining how individual behaviour is energised, directed and maintained. The major process theory of motivation includes expectancy theory, equity theory, goal setting theory and reinforcement theory. In my classroom activities I am relating this theorys to my classroom activities in a g roup. When considered my experience in a group situation once while doing a group presentation in collage we all are five people. We had a 20 days time to presentation and from first day we all thought to meet at my place but no one turn up this happened many time every one say some other reason. It happened for all 19 day only 1 day left to submit the presentation than I thought to divide the task to my group members. Each one is assign a separate task and the task should complete before the particular schedule time. With this I emerge as leader that made me influenza ion as Leadership. Not only Leadership but also motivation In order to sleep tonight I have to complete my task of presentation before sleep. I need to satisfy my physiological need that is to sleep in time. I should complete the presentation before night CONCLUSION According to the trait theory the question arises of weather a leader is born or developed. There is no defined answer as many theorists have differ ent answers to this. Understanding the concepts from above of motivation its rewards systems as to how useful it is for a leader to understand how it can be utilized in getting work done from people, decision making and its importance in growing more efficient, managing change and adapting quickly to it, understanding human perceptions and how they affect management, understanding the value of power in an organization without which a leader is nothing, politics and control and the other factors finally lead towards the understanding that leaders are developed. Many individuals may be born with the skill to be a leader this does not prove that he grows up to be an effective leader. However he can develop the ability to become one. Experience and the urge to learn can help one become an efficient leader. According to my understanding a person might be born with natural abilities to become a leader. This assignment is very useful to assess my past behaviour to the present behaviour and ways to develop the behaviour and to assess the performance by using these theories in a group. These are the two oldest theories what I used because older principles are the basic for anything i.e. the applications should follows the basic principle. Only few people are reached the self-actualization concept in the Leadership theory and Maslows theory. I am very much willing to taste that step. So I am going to putting my effort in this way and also looking the ways to develop. In my opinion if the group activities are conducted from the child hood they will be a very useful to the individual to improve their personality, behaviour and from that the concept of Leadership and motivation skills will also improve for the betterment of the future. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Organisational Behaviour In Life Experiences Of Teams" essay for you Create order